Abstract: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are often difficult to treat because of their biofilm-forming ability and antimicrobial resistance. We investigated the effects of sub-minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of antibiotics on MRSA biofilm formation. Clinical MRSA isolates were grown with sub-MICs (1/256-1/2 × MICs) of nafcillin, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin. The biofilm biomass was measured using crystal violet staining. Of the 107 MRSA isolates tested, 63 (58.9%) belonged to sequence type 5 (ST5), and 44 (41.1%) belonged to ST72. The MIC 50 /MIC 90 values of nafcillin, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin were 256/512, 1/2, 64/512, and 0.008/0.03 mg/L, respectively. The sub-MICs of nafcillin, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin promoted biofilm formation in 75 (70.1%), 49 (45.8%), 89 (83.2%), and 89 (83.2%) isolates, respectively. At sub-MICs of nafcillin, the factors associated with strong biofilm induction were the ST5 strain ( P = 0.001) and agr dysfunction ( P = 0.005). For the sub-MICs of ciprofloxacin, the associated factors were the ST5 strain ( P = 0.002), staphylococcal protein A type t002 strain ( P < 0.001), and ciprofloxacin resistance ( P < 0.001). Among the sub-MICs of rifampin, only ST5 was associated with strong biofilm induction ( P = 0.006). Because the sub-MICs of rifampin were much lower than clinically relevant concentrations, we further tested the capability of biofilm induction in 0.03[Formula: see text]32 mg/L of rifampin. At these concentrations, rifampin-induced biofilm formation was rare in rifampin-susceptible MRSA [1.0% (1 of 100)] but common in rifampin-resistant MRSA [71.4% (5 of 7), P < 0.001]. Induction of biofilm biomass at sub-MICs of antibiotics is common in clinical MRSA isolates and is differentially affected by the MRSA strain and antibiotic class.
Importance: Bacteria can be exposed to sub-MICs of antibiotics at the beginning and end of a dosing regimen, between doses, or during low-dose therapies. Growing evidence suggests that sub-MICs of antimicrobials can stimulate MRSA biofilm formation and alter the composition of the biofilm matrix. Pevious studies have found that sub-MICs of oxacillin, methicillin, and amoxicillin promote biofilm formation in some community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA). We evaluated biofilm induction by sub-MICs of four different classes of antibiotics in 44 CA-MRSA and 63 healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) strains. Our study indicated that sub-MICs of nafcillin, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin frequently promote biofilm induction in clinical MRSA isolates. Strong biofilm induction in sub-MICs of nafcillin, ciprofloxacin, and rifampin was more frequent in HA-MRSA than in CA-MRSA. Antibiotic-induced biofilm formation depends on the antibiotic class, MRSA strain, and antibiotic resistance. Our results emphasize the importance of maintaining effective bactericidal concentrations of antibiotics to treat biofilm-related infections.
Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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