Developmental Profiles of Arithmetic Fluency Skills From Grades 1 to 9 and Their Early Identification.

NATIONAL competency-based educational tests; HOME environment; GENDER role; PRECOCIOUS puberty; PHONOLOGICAL awareness; DEVELOPMENTAL psychology; CHILD development; AGE distribution; MOTIVATION (Psychology); COGNITION; DELAYED onset of disease; TASK performance; REGRESSION analysis; MATHEMATICS; ACADEMIC achievement; PARENTING; MEMBERSHIP; DESCRIPTIVE statistics; PSYCHOLOGY of school children; LOGISTIC regression analysis; LONGITUDINAL method; CHILDREN; ADOLESCENCE

The aim of the present study was to examine the kinds of developmental profiles of arithmetic fluency skills that can be identified across Grades 1–9 (ages 7–16) in a large Finnish sample (n = 2,518). The study also examined whether membership in the developmental profiles could be predicted using a comprehensive set of kindergarten-age factors, including information on cognitive skills; motivational, parental, and home environment factors; and gender. Four profiles of arithmetic fluency skills development were identified using a factor mixture model: persistent arithmetic difficulties (12.23%), precocious onset (50.24%), delayed onset (36.96%), and precocious onset with a Grade 7 drop (.06%). The Cholesky models predicting membership in the three largest profiles suggested that overall, the strongest kindergarten-age predictors were cognitive skills (especially counting, number concepts, spatial relations, rapid automatized naming [RAN], phonological awareness, and letter knowledge), but motivational, parental, and home environment factors were also significant. Membership in the profile with precocious onset was predicted by most of the kindergarten-age measures, suggesting that the strengths in early skills, as well as motivational, parental, and home environment factors, are reflected in the advanced start in arithmetic development at school. The profiles with delayed onset and persistent difficulties were similar in most kindergarten-age measures but differed in task avoidance and four cognitive skills (letter knowledge, counting, number concepts, and RAN), suggesting that these factors predict differential development over the longer term. Public Significance Statement: This study provides valuable insights into the development of arithmetic fluency skills over a long period, from primary school to lower secondary school. The study's person-oriented approach and use of a unique longitudinal data set that includes multiple predictive factors allow for a more comprehensive examination than is typical in the field, contributing to a greater understanding of the development of arithmetic fluency skills. By including an extensive set of kindergarten-age cognitive skills, parental factors, home learning environment, motivational factors, and gender, the study identifies key predictors of the different developmental pathways of arithmetic fluency skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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